Current English Law Essay

In relation to involuntary manslaughter what criticisms can be made of the current law. At present in English legal system there are two homicide offences murder and manslaughter. For the most serious, murder proof of an intention to kill or cause serious harm is needed for a successful conviction. If a partial defence is used in circumstances, such as provocation or diminished responsibility, then the offence is one of voluntary manslaughter. However, if someone kills but did not intend to cause death or serious harm but there was a death then they are liable to be convicted of involuntary manslaughter. There are numerous criticisms attached to Involuntary manslaughter as it covers a wide range of behaviour which can cause death, although one of the most prosecuted common law offences it is not yet become subject to any statutory definition or change and is in need of reform. Although Involuntary manslaughter is split up into two offences Gross negligence manslaughter and constructive/unlawful manslaughter a general criticism of involuntary manslaughter is that there are two major problems with the wide range of conduct covered by the offence. The offences range from cases which just fall short of murder where the accused was aware there was a risk of death or serious harm but did not intend to cause either to the victim (R v Wacker), cases where the person is a experienced professional who makes a small but serious mistake resulting in death ( R v Adomako) and cases whereby a minor assault can end in death (R v Mitchell). This leads to problems in sentencing and labelling, including the fundamental problem that many cases currently amounting to unlawful act manslaughter involve only minor fault on the part of the defendant, and therefore should not be described as manslaughter at all. The law commission have also identified a problem specific to constructive manslaughter the stated it is wrong for a defendant to be liable for a death which he did not intend or foresee, and which would not even have been foreseeable by a reasonable person observing his conduct. It is a huge problem as it only requires a foreseeable risk of causing some harm not death a proposal for reform is that there should be the abolition of constructive manslaughter this would not allow defendants to escape liability as they would be liable for the newly proposed offence of Reckless Killing. They also identified problems specific to gross negligence manslaughter. Gross negligence manslaughter depends on the defendant owing a duty of care to the victim and the seriousness of the breach of that duty A person can be liable for omissions as well as acts. In the case of Adomako it mixes the civil concepts of â€Å"negligence† and â€Å"duty of care† with that of criminal liability, creating uncertainty amongst cases as the gross negligence offence is based around a duty of care not civil matters. There are many inconstancies as The test in Adomako is circular the jury is to convict the defendant of a crime if they believe the conduct was ‘criminal’. This leaves a question of law to be decided by the jury who do not give reasons for their decisions or need to. The use of subjective recklessness manslaughter is also stated to be unneeded since Adomako.

Ethnicity, Race and Culture: Austria

Essay Topic I: Ethnicity, Race and Culture: Austria Austria is not a big country; it’s ranked on 115th place in total area and 92nd in total population. But not so long ago the Austrian-Hungarian Empire was one of the â€Å"big players† by the end of the 19th century in Europe. That Empire has been a mixture of many different and strongly varying cultures and ethnicities, which remains as one of the reasons why it probably fell apart and got divided into different nations.So what is it now, that makes an Austrian an Austrian and why is he so much different than somebody from Hungary, Czech Republic or Germany; this is the main topic of this essay. The first part of the essay will give a short overview of what ethnicity, race and culture in general stands for. Therefor I will give a short introduction about these topics and try to explain how they are used today.Later on, my focus and the main part of this work will include aspects in which Austrian Culture influences pe ople (in Austria and in general) and try to find answers to the question: â€Å"What is typically or specific for the Austrian culture and the national identity? â€Å" To make this essay a little bit more thought-provoking, I will divide the main part into two parts. The first will consist of features which I perceive from being an Austrian citizen; the second part will attempt to give an indication of features that caught the attention of people who were not born or raised in Austria.Before I start with my major writing, first a short anecdote about the Austrian dialect, which is, let us say, an indicator for Austria’s culture and race: â€Å"The Austrian dialect is about as pretty because the talk resistant changes between self-indulgence and pulling oneself together back and forth play. It thus allows an irreplaceable wealth of right projecting temper. † This short quote from the German author and poet Christian Morgenstern gives already very precise and helpful â€Å"informations† about culture in Austria.To understand what the author was trying to say with this quote you have to appreciate the remarkable gap that lies in between Austrian and German culture. Even though most people in the world (if they even know where Austria is located! ) think of Austrian Culture as a very similar to the German culture, which might be not even so far away from the truth but indeed, there are important and noteworthy differences. One of them is that Austrians can be projected with the adjectives â€Å"cozy†, â€Å"comfy† and â€Å"unhurried† compared to the adjectives Germans are illustrious for in the world, such as â€Å"detailed†, â€Å"precise† and â€Å"hardworking†.From my point of view it is quiet right to say that a big part of the Austrian Culture lies somewhere in between, and that is what Christian Morgenstern was trying to say with his quote. But before I go too deep, let us start from the very beginning: What is culture? Well, this is not an easy question to answer because there are various definitions for this word. I will state here two different definitions of culture. Geert Hofstede defined a very common set of models for international cultures.For him culture â€Å"is the collective programming of the human mind that distinguishes the members of on human group from those of another. Culture in this sense is a system of collectively held values. † (Hofstede 1990, p. 20) Whereas Edgar Schein, who was written one of the best and informative books on organizational culture, defines culture â€Å"as the deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs that are shared by members of an organization that operate unconsciously and define in a basic `taken for granted? fashion an organization’s view of itself and its environment. † (Schein 1994, p. 7) From these two definitions it is already quite obvious that culture has very much to do with groups. A basic need of groups is the ability to communicate, both at a superficial level (for which ordinary language largely suffices) and also at a deeper level of meaning. At this deeper level, words, actions and things can become filled with special and specific meaning for the group, such as group-specific jargon and language, rituals for greetings, meetings and other group processes and last but not least artwork and artifacts that symbolize and remind the group of their history (cf.Schein 1994, p. 24;25). And Austria has a long history with a rich tradition. Austria’s geographical location at the crossroads of Europe determined its historical multiethnic makeup. As Austria is comprised with nine provinces and bordered by eight countries with their own distinctive cultures, the people of each province tend to be different. Surrounded by so many other cultures, Austria has often been subjected to cultural â€Å"invasions†, which are the source of the differences among the provi nces. Another source of the diversity is the Alps, which cover 62 percent of the country.The distinctions also occurred because different groups settled in Austria. In addition to the Celts, Romans, Hungarians, and Germanic groups, many groups from central Europe arrived during the Middle Ages. Now we have defined Austria’s conditions of culture and its heritage. Let us move to the next important topic: â€Å"National Identity†. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, identity is defined as â€Å"those attributes that make you unique as an individual and different from others† or â€Å"the way you see or define yourself†.Identity can therefore be seen as the positioning of the â€Å"self† as opposed to the â€Å"others†. This concept refers to individual rather than to collective identity and may be determined by the gender as well as the territorial, cultural, social, religious, ethnic, linguistic and national identity (cf. Sm ith 1991, p. 15). Going beyond individual identity to collective identity and approaching the concept of national identity, the definition gets more complex. It is not about identifying a single individual, but about detecting characteristics of a whole center of population.In another approach, the second construct, the nation can be defined as â€Å"an extensive aggregate of persons, so closely associated with each other by common descent, language, or history, as to form a distinct race or people, usually organized as a separate political state and occupying a definite territory† (The Oxford English Dictionary 1933, p. 30). So now we have well-defined the terms culture and national identity and these definitions leave very much space open to examine the Austrian lifestyle and culture. Therefor it is very difficult to answer questions like â€Å"What is typically Austrian? † without generalizing excessively.The struggle lies in the problem, that if you have grown up i n a place, you perceive many things differently than foreigners would and, which makes the situation even more complicated, you don’t notice things foreigners might consider odd. To me, the situation is a little bit easier; I was born in Croatia and moved to Austria when I was 5 years old, so I am able to take both sides of observation, the inside and the outside. My first part of observation about the â€Å"Austrian soul† precedes me to the baroque and catholic legacy that, I think, goes hand in hand with Austrian Culture and National Identity.This means that Austrian society is strongly influenced by a baroque, Catholic tradition that is fairly subtle in terms of actual religious life (only 7 percent of all Austrians attend a weekly service, which is Western-European standard; in Poland it is 20 percent, in the United States of America 40 percent! ). Nevertheless, the tradition of strong family ties, opulent architecture, food and feasts, as well as celebrations and ceremonies is something I see as concerned with the Catholic legacy of the country.Formality and certain ways in which you engage with people socially is very hierarchical and much stricter regulated than in English speaking countries. Families receive significant public benefits for staying with newborn babies for two years and employees are required to secure a mother? s (or father? s, but that is still very uncommon in Austria) job for three years. This leads directly to the very next shaping factor in Austria, the socialist tradition. The socialist tradition of the country is mostly based on the reforms of the1970ies.Education is more or less free from primary school to university (when a conservative government started charging about 700 Euros in fees per year, there were many demonstrations all over Austria). Health care is public. Transportation, culture and arts, libraries and other infrastructure is heavily funded by the public. That has significant social implications: Aus tria? s university graduates are among the oldest in Europe (in 2005, the average age of receiving the first degree was 27) and its retirement age is among the lowest. For several years, the political trend is to cut the social system down and liberalize the country economically.Many Austrians find the sheer thought of responsibility and initiative distressing, though. Austrians also have a reputation for being conservative and xenophobic, especially Germans like to think of us as a hostile, grumpy bunch (which we might well be with respect to Germans). The political spectrum of Austria is in fact shifted slightly to the right compared to Germany: The German conservatives are the â€Å"rightest† party, whereas Austrian populists standing clearly right of the conservatives have pioneered populist political movements in Europe.To understand this, I think it is necessary to distinguish between political contents on one hand and political style on the other. In terms of actual co ntent, the rightwing populists of Austria (and of other European countries) are not necessarily more radical than the Tories in the UK or even the democrats in the US. In terms of style, Austrians have very little constraints when it comes to being straight-forward and public statements are often made by Austrians that would be regarded as being highly politically incorrect in many other countries, despite of being wide-spread views.Another mechanism that came up my mind while writing this essay is that Austrian people have original views in foreign things. I think that there are several reasons for this. Partly it? s the Austrian mentality to rant openly about whatever bothers you. Partly – especially with rightwing issues – it is also that Austria defined itself with the aid of Western nations as the first victim of Nazi Germany, completely failing to acknowledge the role as a major culprit, which it also had, until into the 1980ies. There was much less of a progress ive turnover than in Germany after the war.But the key-question remains: Are Austrians more xenophobic, racist, Semitic than the rest of Europe? Drawn from own experiences and those of friends from other countries, I would say â€Å"most likely not†. As everywhere, cities are more open and cosmopolitan than rural communities. As everywhere, education makes people more tolerant. But just because it is quite likely to hear from an Austrian a grumpy complaint about Eastern-European burglars, Turkish youngsters molesting people on the street or Nigerian asylum seekers selling drugs does not mean that such stereotypes don? t exist in other countries.Enforcing political correctness (socially or legally) fights symptoms, not causes. In terms of causes of intolerance, I don? t think that Austria is doing significantly better or worse than other Western countries. And the openness in talking about pretty much anything will at least allow you to listen to people and get a direct handle on what they honestly think. Another important aspect of the Austrian culture and its soul is the priority of domestic life. Austrians love to build, repair, extend, maintain, refurbish or modernize their houses. They also love gardening and spend ours in garden centers. Houses and gardens are important social stages for dinner parties, BBQs or occasionally just staying in and watch TV. Garden-culture is something you find everywhere in Europe, the obsession with house-building and fixing is a more continental or even Germanic manner (a variation of the same principle is â€Å"washing the car†). The priority that homes and families have for Austrians might contribute to the stereotype of the bourgeois mountain people. Speaking of mountains: The natural beauty of the country gave rise to a pronounced outdoors culture.Mountaineering, skiing, rock climbing, paragliding, cycling, skiing, camping, skiing, swimming, just strolling and – of course – skiing are really big in Austria and we love to spend our weekends climbing pretty much any hill-resembling thing pointing out of the landscape. Then we sit on top of it, drink beer and watch the valleys. From my point of view, I don’t think there? s a rational reason why we are doing this. A colleague of mine once tried to explain it with a nation-wide UV light addiction; others think it? s coffee and â€Å"Red Bull† that drive us up the hills.Probably all nonsense. In the end, and I am only guessing here, we climb mountains simply because we can. This was the first part as to give my perspective of what is typically Austrian from the view of an Austrian. My next part should be seen as a form of an outside view of how Austrian people and their behavior are seen in the rest of the world. However, I am often amused by the little things that foreigners notice as typically Austrian. Having grown up in the country myself, I often take things as natural or granted that are somewhat odd to an outsider? s eye.From talking to people that have been to this country before, I have learned about the Austria-specificity of a range of features. Long conversations with a friend from Germany revealed a lot of Austrian culture to me that I had previously been unaware of. This included one of his observations on the way people in Austria attribute certain habits and features to the origin on a person: If somebody is Tyrolean, he is expected to like hiking, be conservative and hate Italians. Carinthian accents are immediately associated with ski- and surf-instructors, alongside with their stereotypical courtship behaviors.If somebody acts provincially in Vienna and it turns out that he is Upper Austrian, everybody goes â€Å"Ah, that? s why†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . According to my friend, the â€Å"tribal affiliation† of the Austrians is much more pronounced than in Germany. Something that I have been already aware but not considered as typically Austrian is the love to their titles a nd degrees. Austria has an impressive list of 819 titles and degrees. Many people get their title or academic degree included in their passports and they even a master (â€Å"Magister†) degree is written before the name.Most titles are used instead of a name when referring to a person directly, for example â€Å"Herr Magister† or â€Å"Frau Doktor†. Recent years saw the arrival of the Anglo-American â€Å"MA†, â€Å"PhD† or other â€Å"new† degrees. Most elderly Austrians are confused by these and try to translate them. This leads me to my last feature of Austrian behaviors that I concluded while talking to foreign friends of me. If you ask Austrians about an upper-class, it is likely that they will look at you somewhat confused and refer you to the wide middle-class and the longstanding socialist traditions that effectively eliminated at least the most pressing poverty.Upper-class as a concept is something strange to Austria – and ye t there are few countries that have a stronger correlation in education or income and life expectancy, income of children, social status, and so on, than the German-speaking countries. I am always fascinated how well the upper-class is ignored in Austria and yet maintains its behavioral and social rituals that often date back to the days of the monarchy. If an Austrian tells you that there is no real upper-class in this country, ask how many friends he has that went to one of Vienna? international schools; ask about the last time he went to the Salzburg Festival; if he would feel comfortable dining and using the correct cutlery in one of Salzburg? s top-restaurants; or if he has heard of the â€Å"Adelsclubs† of Vienna (associations for Austria? s ex-nobility). Austria has a long history with a long tradition. For the development of Culture and National Identity this is a very significant aspect, also when talking about what is typically for Austrians. Even to myself, as I al ready ive here for 20 years, there are facets about the Austrian culture that have not been revealed to me so far. Through attending numerous sociological classes and talking to friends from Austria but also from foreign countries, I was able to get a profounder and closer look on what makes an Austrian an Austrian and that there are reasonable explanations for certain aspects and behaviors. This will be important for further investigations, because I think that Austria’s culture (and every culture worldwide) is just about to experience major changes.Factors like immigration, migration and especially the immense changes we are going through thanks to globalization and all the issues that come with it, will show if historically grown cultures have the capability to survive such a thriving and lavish lifestyle, as we are experiencing right now in the western Words: 2. 965 Words: 2. 965 hemisphere. References: Austrian Culture. Hephaestus Books, 2011 Brown, Andrew;  Organizati onal Culture. Pitman, London, 1995 Culture of Austria-Hungary. General Books LLC, 2010Lichtenberger Elisabeth; Austria: Society and Regions. Austrian Academy of Sciences, 2000 Schein, Edgar; Organizational Culture and Leadership. Jossey-Bass Psychology Series, 1994 [Paperback] Simpson, John; Weiner, Edmund; The Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 1989 Stein R. Conrad; Austria. Enchantment of the World Series. Children’s Press, 2000 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Available from: http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/Nationalism [Accessed April 2012] Culture and quality: an anthropological perspectiveAvailable from: http://intqhc. oxfordjournals. org/content/16/5/345. full [Accessed April 2012] Wikipedia, Austria, last modified on 21 April 2012 Available from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Austria [Accessed April 2012] ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Wikipedia, Au stria [ 2 ]. Christian Morgenstern, German author and poet (1871-1914) [ 3 ]. Brown, Andrew,  Organizational Culture. Pitman, London, 1995 [ 4 ]. Schein, Edgar, Organizational Culture and Leadership. Jossey-Bass Psychology Series, 1994 [ 5 ]. Wikipedia [ 6 ].Lichtenberger Elisabeth; Austria: Society and Regions. Austrian Academy of Sciences, 2000 [ 7 ]. Stein R. Conrad; Austria. Enchantment of the World Series. Children’s Press, 2000 [ 8 ]. Lichtenberger Elisabeth; Austria: Society and Regions. Austrian Academy of Sciences, 2000 [ 9 ]. Austrian Culture. Hephaestus Books 2011 [ 10 ]. Austrian Culture. Hephaestus Books 2011 [ 11 ]. Culture of Austria-Hungary. General Books LLC 2010 [ 12 ]. Culture of Austria-Hungary. General Books LLC 2010 [ 13 ]. Culture of Austria-Hungary. General Books LLC 2010

Model for free and open university courseware

One of the determinants of creation of FOCI contents is the capacity building which generally refers to developing required competences for creation of FOCI online contents. Dealing with copyright issues may be a serious roadblock even if the intention of the author was meant to provide the resource for free access and use. In the process of preparing contents, instructors research contents from various sources of which some may have various uprights and other restrictions. Instructors may also raise issues of their intellectual property rights.Another determinant is the motivation of instructors; there is no clear incentive of engagement for the faculty to participate in open courseware. The greatest concern is the time that is required by instructors to prepare a course that will be available, monitored, maintained, updated and perhaps re-formulated for new settings and different uses. The open courseware materials provided by the instructor will be Judged by the peers; therefore e ffort in producing quality desired is of essence. Validation Quality assurance mechanism will guarantee that materials are validated for publication.Quality in this sense refers to the relevance of material to the public, compliance to education standards and integrity, organization of contents and compliance to intellectual property rights. The FOCI materials should be intellectual property-cleared, meaning that the university has the rights to make the materials available under open terms and that nothing in the materials infringes the copyrights of others. Secondly, conceptualization and localization of contents trials from course instructors have been designed for their students at the university.If the same contents are to be available for public view, it is important to consider relevance of the contents to other people outside the university in diverse thematic areas of research and training. Quality assurance will involve checking the contents for consistency, pedagogical as pects, compliance to education standards and organization of contents. By publishing materials in the web for open access through FOCI, university is allowing the public to Judge what is offered by the institution.If materials are of poor quality, it may be threat to the reputation of not only the author but also the university. The university should strive to provide best quality material to avoid negative criticism by the public. Reliance should be made on standards and specifications to the extent possible. Lastly, there is need for accreditation which is the official approval of contents for publication in FOCI sites. Dissemination A key component of open courseware is the dissemination of contents whose cornerstone is technology. The technology is based on the CIT infrastructure for publishing the contents.Open courseware technology infrastructure consists of several components, internet connectivity, desktop tools for building course web sites and file conversion, web authorin g tools, workflow, metadata capture and publication tools, content staging infrastructure, content publication infrastructure, content repositories (file storage) Implementation. The technology should be designed to allow the use of a variety of appropriate tools, with a minimum of integration problems. The choice of technology should consider setup and maintenance cost.In our framework we endeavor to recommend use of cheap but efficient technology eatable for Kenya situation. One of the key determinants of dissemination of FOCI contents is the internet Connectivity. The university should be well served with internet and the bandwidth should be sufficient to allow access of not only textual information but also transmission of multimedia contents. Sufficient campus network connectivity is crucial to facilitate easy creation and updating of contents by course authors at the comfort of their offices.Secondly, Contents delivered through open courseware should be easily searchable and w ell organized for open access. Care would be made for usability considerations, which means contents, should be easy to edit or modify (formats, specifications) and should accommodate different kinds of access considerations. There is need for content management systems which provides a means of managing large amounts of contents and at the same time providing room for incorporating other pedagogical aspects.From literature review we found out that a number of content management systems are available and which are suitable for open courseware. Lastly, preparing contents for web access also require inserting metadata information. In most cases, local access of online contents does not pose a big problem to users as the remote access. Some of remote users may access courseware contents using very slow connections given the situation of internet in our country. For example it can be extremely difficult to watch or download video contents using slow connection.Before university implemen ts open courseware it is important to consider the connections of the expected users especially for remote access. In addition, a whole range of delivery modes should be made available for cases where connectivity at sufficient bandwidth would cause a robber. Lastly, criteria for the assessment of outcomes on the user of open courseware should be defined. Feedback mechanisms should be designed and implemented. It should allow users to express their views on their experiences with the courseware. In addition the site should include access counter to tell the number of people who visit the site.Utilization Utilization refers to usage of open courseware materials in the context of our proposed framework . This may entail learners using the materials for additional learning and research, instructors from other institution using the materials in their raining and other people using the materials for personal study. Awareness is thought as one of determinant of utilization in which case t argeted citizenry needs to be sensitizes of the availability of open courseware. The public should have information about what is available on open courseware and benefits of using the materials .The impact of the contents on the learner will greatly determine the utilization of the contents. Care should be taken in that the design of contents. The material should not only be useful to the university students but also majority of the public. Lastly, given that FOCI will be delivered through ‘CT. It is important to consider literacy levels of FOCI users. Basic cit requisite skills are needed for one to be able to search open courseware materials on internet, interact with the site in different ways, save contents and provide feedbacks.Methodology The research adopted a field survey research design whose objective was to establish factors that discourage or/and encourage free and open courseware in public universities of Kenya. The target population of the research was the publi c universities in Kenya. Questionnaire was the primary data collection instrument and as divided into five parts based on the five elements the free and open courseware framework elements; organization, creation, validation, dissemination and utilization. The study involved both qualitative and quantitative approaches. A sample size of 450 students and 150 lecturers was targeted.Data collection took place in August 2010. It was collected from 3 public universities that is university of Nairobi, Kenya and Com Kenya University KODAK). Useful and complete responses were obtained from 392 students representing a response rate of 87% and 1 11 lecturers representing a response rate of 74%. RESULTS On the basis of the analyzed responses the following inferences were drawn Table 4. 1. Elements Components Processes Observations Governance & Management -Planning -Setting up testators -Free and open courseware has not so far been implemented in Kenya. No comprehensive plan. Partnership and col laboration Building alliances and consulting Foci partners -Public universities have established some local and international links on open contents provision. Institutional policies Creating policies that support open courseware -Universities policies do not cater for free and open content. Some of universities are errantly reviewing policies. Sustainability Establish ways of meeting the setup and maintenance cost -Difficult to direct university limited funds to free and open courseware project. Low support from Government and Nags Developing knowledge & sharing culture Faculty assassination and advocacy A number of workshops and conferences have been held Capacity building -Improve CIT literacy among lecturers -Training of faculty in E-content development -Creating textual and video contents -Majority of faculties are CIT literate. -Majority of lecturers have not attended training in E-content development -Most of structures contents is not in electronic format -Faculties have not developed video contents of most of lectures. Lecturers have no access to video capturing and editing facilities. -Dealing with copyright issues -Adhere to PR -Set up open sharing licenses -Majority of lecturers obtain materials from copyrighted sources -No clear Intellectual property rights policies in Kenya and particularly in the universities that cater for open sharing. Attitudes -Developing positive attitudes towards open sharing materials Majority of lecturers have negative attitude towards open sharing. However, majority are willing to share heir materials for free under open Terms.Motivation -Establish ways of motivating lecturers Low motivation of faculty. Majority of lecturers indicated that they cannot dedicate their time to embark on contents creation for free publishing without clear terms of engagements. Validation Copyright clearance -Perform copyright clearance Majority of lecturers obtain contents from copyrighted sources. Conceptualizing of contents Perform releva nce check Some of the materials are not relevant to the public Quality Assurance Perform quality assurance Some of the instructor's materials do not meet quality standards for OCW.Accreditation of materials -Get official approval and seek authorization for publishing from faculty No policies available to support accreditation of open materials. Utilization -Awareness -Public assassination -Low awareness level Majority of university students, instructors and administrators are not aware of open courseware. -CIT Literacy Improve cit literacy Majority of learners at public university are CIT literate -Access Improve internet access Internet usage level is generally high by university students.However, majority of students utilize free contents available on the web for research as opposed to buying kooks. -Relevance Maintain high standards and quality in production of open courseware materials Some of the materials are not useful to public 5. 0 Conclusion Results from the study shows th at the concept of FOCI has not been embraced in Kenya. However, it is not an absolutely new phenomenon since some of the universities are sensitivity their faculties on content sharing and aligning their policies to accommodate open contents.Nevertheless, the study reports low awareness of FOCI in Kenya universities among students and faculty members. The study identified a number of issues that pose significant challenges in implementation of FOCI in Kenya based on regression test performed . Amongst, Intellectual property rights and attitudes of faculty towards open courseware have shown significant effect on creation of FOCI contents while quality and relevance of materials shown significant effects on utilization of open courseware. In addition sustainability of FOCI project is another issue that poses a significant challenge to the implementation.The fact that the original design of FOCI is not to generate income for the university or contents providers begs the question of how such project can be sustained. It is encouraging to note that the number of lecturers participating in development of content for online learning is on increase. Universities have also set up repositories for storage of contents e. G University of Nairobi and Kenya University has each two servers for storage of contents and backups and the universities are gradually embracing online learning in their curriculum.Lastly, over last five years internet connectivity has greatly improved in Kenya and currently, the majority of public universities in Kenya are connected through a fiber-based local and external access infrastructure. 5. 1 Recommendations There will be need for rigorous campaign and assassination to raise the awareness level if a university wants to embark on implementation of FOCI. The public needs to get information about the availability of materials, various techniques of accessing the materials online and build confidence about the quality of materials.Study has reveal ed that majority of lecturers utilizes copyrighted contents in preparation of their lecture materials and this poses a significant challenge of sharing the contents to the public. The study identified IP clearance as one the solutions of coping with issue of non adherence to copyright laws. IP clearance is the process that ensures the open courseware publisher has the rights to make the materials available under open terms and that nothing in the materials infringes the copyright of other . Let may involve getting approvals from authors whose contents have been copied and/or removing such contents.It may also involve making sure fair use of other author's contents which involves ensuring that the original authors are properly acknowledged and may involve granting licenses to open courseware end-users to use, reuse, adapt, and redistribute materials for non-commercial educational reposes, in accordance with the open courseware concept. The greatest concern is the time that is require d by faculty from academics to prepare elements of a course that will be available, monitored, maintained, updated and perhaps re-formulated for new settings and different use.Therefore motivation and attitudes of instructors is critical. The study recommends that stakeholders in academia should first demystify the whole issue of free and open sharing of contents through assassination of the faculty. It important for management of open courseware to consider financial rewards of the developers for their time and other forms intrinsic motivation such as recognitions of leading authors by the universities or/and other agencies. Course materials published on FOCI are subjected to public scrutiny.End users will constantly evaluate the quality of content offered by the university. Therefore, quality of content can positively or negatively impact on the reputation of the institution. It is difficult to achieve 100% acceptance of FOCI content in the face of the diverse thematic areas of re search and training, and the different approaches and modes of delivering contents. However universities should strive to make the contents relevant to majority of the public. One of the unresolved issues is delivery methods for remote access which includes off campus accesses.The scope of our study did not carry out assessment on the network infrastructure outside the university. But, results from other studies indicate that, it may be difficult to maintain high speed connection in most of places in Kenya especially the remote areas. Nevertheless, the current Kenya devolution promises to improve the internet connectivity of major towns and increase the internet reach for majority of citizens. It is also important to set up distributed contents servers or mirror servers in various parts of the country especially in major towns to improve speed of access all over the country.Sustainability of the project has shown significant effect on the implementation of FOCI, given the high setup and maintenance cost of implementing. It might be difficult to maintain budget line for open courseware. However, universities which already have an existing and well established online learning infrastructure can easily and cheaply migrate to FOCI. If the university offers online learning for a umber of years, over time published materials will be continually refined and since online learning is income generating Return-on-Investment will have been achieved.

Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Article Example The approved measured was very controversial because it went against the principles of free trade. The U.S historically has prided itself in being a country in favor of free trade. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the tire tariff on Chinese imports and to determine the impact of this policy. The U.S. government and President Obama promised the American people that they would protect the country against the threat the Chinese economy poses. I agree with the President’s decision to impose a tariff on Chinese tire imports. The reason that I believe this was the right decision is because the tire industry in the U.S. had reached a point in which it needed governmental intervention to salvage a dying industry. Between 2005 and 2009 the U.S tire industry lost 5,000 jobs. The tire industry is a byproduct of the automobile industry. The U.S. has always prided itself in the accomplishments of the Big 3 automakers. The policy to protect the U.S tire industry by imposing a tariff seems like a logical move because Chinese imports were cannibalizing the U.S. market. During the last five years Chinese imports of tires had tripled in volume. The new tariff on Chinese tire imports benefits the U.S tire manufactures that have operations in the United States territory. ... This new policy should help ignite job creation in the U.S. tire industry. Another stakeholder group that benefits from the policy is low price tire manufactures outside of China. The group that is hurt the most by this policy is Chinese tire manufactures. Another stakeholder group that is potentially hurt by this policy is the consumers of tires because they will not able to purchase Chinese imported tires at rock bottom prices anymore. The decision to impose a tariff on Chinese tires was a difficult one because the U.S. typically does not believe in the use of protectionism. Protectionism can be defined as the government’s placing of tariffs or quotas on imports to protect domestic industries from global competition2. If the government were to impose tariffs of all goods imported into the United States then the U.S. would be in complete violation of the WTO and it would not be promoting free trade. Another negative consequence of imposing tariffs on all goods imported is tha t it would raise the prices of all consumer goods which would lead to inflation and higher cost of living for the American people. If tariffs were imposed on all items coming into Broward County my life would be very different because I probably would have to get a second job just to pay for my living expenses. The prices of consumer goods would skyrocket at Broward County. Governments often have to make tough decisions that may have political and economical backlash. President Obama made the right choice to impose a tariff on Chinese tire imports because China was cannibalizing the market by flooding it with millions of cheap tires. The excess amount of cheap tires in the marketplace was hurting this industry as American companies could not make a profit due to the

Organisational Behaviour summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Organisational Behaviour summary - Essay Example described McDonaldization as a process through which society adopts the characteristics of a fast food restaurant, which has four components; calculability, efficiency, predictability and control. However, McDonald’s has diversified beyond these traditional fast food items through the acquisition of restaurants such as Boston Market and Donatos Pizzeria. McDonald’s not only operates stand alone restaurants but also has presence in commercial establishments such as mall, gas stations and airports. What began as a simple drive through in 1941 has emerged to be the world’s largest fast food chain. There is a trans-generational connotation to McDonald’s as every American seems to have gone through it at one point or through out their lives. But how has McDonald’s managed to be such a global icon of success? McDonald’s is used as a learning tool, even by organizations out of the food and service industry. This implies that their strategy is well above global standards. It puts emphasis on staff training and development programmes, strict and consistent quality and service, continuous innovation and development and a centralized promotion campaign. The main emphasis of McDonald’s competitive advantage that has ensured that they have remained as a leader is the relentless quest for consistency and innovation. This is compounded by the fact that McDonald’s has put measure in place such as the quality assurance labs globally to ensure that only products of the highest standards are used in the production process. Despite the fact that the staff hired by McDonald’s is mostly untrained and inexperienced, these recruits undergo vigorous training on food preparation and customer care. While it is a global enterprise, McDonald’s operations are standardized through out. This has advantages such as the standardization of cost efficiencies and the management is able to make comparisons and learn from its various outlets. This also encourages healthy competition

Brief biography of a Texas Representative or a US Senator Essay

Brief biography of a Texas Representative or a US Senator - Essay Example Gattis was born on December 1, 1967 in Austin, Texas. His father is a former agricultural school teacher and his mother a former public school teacher. The family ranch is called Beefmaster cattle. Gattis and his spouse Shana have three pre-school children (Texas House of Representatives, 2009). Gattis graduated from Texas A& M University in College Station, Texas in 1990. He was a member of Texas A&M Corps of Cadets (Gattis & Lucas LLP) and class president (Texas House of Representatives, 2009). In 1994, Gattis graduated in law from South Texas College of Law, Houston (Gattis & Lucas LLP). Gattis started his legal career as an associate for Houston-based litigation firm Tucker, Hendryx & Gascoyne. Beginning in 1996, he served for seven years as a criminal prosecutor in Williamson County. In 2003, Gattis started his own law firm, which he merged with his friend and attorney Travis Lucas office in 2006 to form Gattis & Lucas, LLP (Gattis & Lucas LLP). Gattis is the head of the firms litigation and trial practice in representing individuals, companies, and organizations in courtrooms across the State (Gattis & Lucas LLP). Appraisal Reform: Gattis supports bringing accountability and transparency to the current appraisal system (Texans for Dan Gattis). He promises to support reforms that would give property owners more rights while making the appraisal district accountable to voters (Texans for Dan Gattis). Businesses and jobs. Gattis promises to continue supporting policies focusing on the States economic well-being. His efforts towards policies such as worker’s compensation reform, no state income tax, and lawsuit reform have earned him the title of Defender of the American Dream by Americans for Prosperity for two sessions (Texans for Dan Gattis). Energy: Gattis favors achieving energy independence by increasing States exploration and production while investigating all alternative energy sources

Environmental Impact of Balfour Beatty Company Term Paper

Environmental Impact of Balfour Beatty Company - Term Paper Example Considering the nature of activities carried out by this company such as infrastructure development and investment, and construction services, it contributes a lot towards environmental destruction. The three main negative environmental impacts contributed by this company include pollution, human and animal population displacement and destruction of natural habitat (COUNCIL OF EUROPE PARLIAMENTARY ASSEMBLY 2002). Pollution is the release of harmful substances to the environment which may be in different forms such as air, water, radioactive materials, soil, heat, and light. Emission of gaseous waste to the atmosphere has been caused by this company as a result of the fleet of cars owned by this company which emits carbon waste and sulfur compounds to the environment. These are as a result of the various new cars which are constantly on the roads to the construction sites. It is an estimated fact that most air pollution is caused by car emissions. Another way of increased carbon into the atmosphere by the company are the many construction plans which are distributed in the 80 countries, these industries release their waste to the atmosphere, increasing the amount of carbon dioxide. The lethal effects of carbon dioxide include the formation of smog which blocks sunlight from reaching the earth’s surface. This prevents the process of photosynthesis from taking place in plants, resulting in wilting. The destruction of the natural forest is a great worldwide concern as its effects lead to dire consequences (COUNCIL OF EUROPE PARLIAMENTARY ASSEMBLY 2002). Such emissions have contributed to global warming and formation of acid rain due to increased carbon levels in the atmosphere.  

Sound in A Clockwork Orange Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sound in A Clockwork Orange - Essay Example This method will illustrate how Kubrick's use of sound builds upon itself in a cumulative manner. The first scene of A Clockwork Orange starts with a move through blank screens painted with the primary colours (red and blue) with the sound of a synthesizer playing Bach. This initial juxtaposition between the most modern of instruments and Baroque music effectively alienates the audience by presenting two things that they are familiar with together. The two jar with one another and yet, as the first shot focuses in close-up on Alex's face, they seem paradoxically suited for one another. The music reflects the violent smirk that is on Alex's face as he stares straight at the camera, and thus the audience, as his opening voice-over is heard. There are thus two elements to the sound at this point: the synthesized Bach music and Alex's introduction to his world. The language that Alex uses includes words that do not ordinarily exist in English, but which will be effectively translated by the audience because of their context. Thus Alex states that he and his "droogs" are "making up our razoodocks" what to do that night. Droog obviously means "friend" and razoodock is probably "mind". The juxtaposition is increased by the fact that they are drinking milk in a decidedly odd milk-bar that sells some rather suspicious-sounding milk. The shot draws back from a close-up to a medium shot to a long shot of the whole bar, with the nude female mannequins that act as chairs. The film that started with music has now introduced the audience to a strange, surreal, threatening world: and it was the first blast of synthesized Bach that led the audience to the door. In the next scene a close-up of a hand holding a whisky bottle with another empty bottle besides it is essentially serenaded by a drunken voice singing an old Irish song. It is as if the bottle were singing, but as the shot steadily draws out the drunk is revealed. Alex and his droogs come into the scene as shadows and it is there footsteps that are heard, casual and yet ominous, just as Alex starts to tell the audience how he could not stand drunks and drunken singing. The echoing sound of the singing and the footsteps make once again for a surreal world, one that reflects the stark lighting that makes their shadows enormously long. Echoing, rather distorted voices continue on the soundtrack as Alex and the old man argue with one another and then the Droogs start to beat him up. Here Kubrick introduces the idea that violence can be seen and heard as a dance. Thus the rhymic beating of the various weapons against the man's body sound like perverted musical instruments to which their howls of joy at indulging in violence are an accompaniment. Just before the jump cut to the theatre scene the waltz music that accompanies this is introduced. This time it is a girl's screams that acts in unison with the music: violence and beautiful melodies again juxtaposed. It takes a full ten seconds for Kubrick to actually reveal in a visual manner what is happening in the scene: essentially this is secondary to the two sounds put against one another. The fact that the attempted rape of the girl is shot in a distancing long-shot adds to the importance of the sound. The sound

History of the Olympic Games Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 3

History of the Olympic Games - Research Paper Example The state-run was the only event for the first 13 Olympic Games, but over time new sporting events were introduced (David 14). The hoplitodrome was a footrace while athletes wore full amours. There was an event where athletes competed in five competition called Pentathlon; that was javelin, sprint, jumping, wrestling and discus throwing. Boxing was later introduced at the 23rd games, and they continued to expand adding more and more games such as chariot racing. In the 37th Olympic Games, the Greek extended the games to a five-day competition. At first, the games were only participated by the Greek citizens only but eventually, the whole Mediterranean region joined in which was then the Roman Empire (Ben 8). The Olympic Games were linked to the religious festivals of Zeus closely but were not part of any rite. They were aimed more on showing the physical qualities and performances done by young people and also to enhance good relationships between Greece and its surrounding allies. The festival was a peaceful event influencing all the war-like cities, even the Sparta was famous for brutal and strict military always waited for the Olympic Games to end before attacking the Greek cities. In the ancient games, women were not allowed to attend the games, only freeborn boys and men could participate and attend. Athletes would take oaths first to observe the rules and standards of the games. The participants did not receive any monetary awards; they paid their expenses. The winners were crowned with olive leaves and paraded like heroes, and they were given a gift after being announced by a Greek judge while spectators cheered. The ceremony took place at the temple of Zeus. The greatest athlete in the ancient games was a wrestler called Milo of Croton who won the boxing competition six times and was said to be the most powerful man then. Many artists were also inspired by the Olympics.

Mitigation Strategies and Solutions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Mitigation Strategies and Solutions - Essay Example Today’s research proves that the Earths average surface temperature has risen by about 1Â °F in 20th century. Meteorologists have firm logics and facts that the Earth’s warming is highly associated to human activities as it has been increasing since the onset of industrial revolution in 1950. Human beings have changed the chemical composition of the atmosphere by producing greenhouse gases mainly carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. These are heat-trapping gases. In the Earth’s atmosphere, greenhouse gases are those that first absorb solar radiation and then release it to the atmosphere within the thermal infrared range. This process is called the green house effect which is the fundamental cause of global warming. The well known greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere that play a major role in global warming are carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, water vapor, and ozone. Hydro-fluorocarbons, per-fluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride are som e other very dominant greenhouse gases that are the results of variety of industrialized processes. Major human actions such as use of fossil petroleum, automobiles, emerging industrial and urban areas, electric power plants and clearing of land are primarily responsible for the increased concentration of carbon dioxide whereas deforestation is the basic cause of enhanced concentration of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The perspective of cooling influences and facts about global warming have proved a very high confidence level of 90% that the globally net effect of warming is due to human activities since 1750 (IPCC, Third Assessment Report, 2007). The contribution of these gases to the greenhouse effect is given in the following table. Some of scientists which are not in majority disagree about the association of increased greenhouse gases to the human activities. They claim that the global warming is the result of natural

The Role of Women In The U.S. Military Research Paper

The Role of Women In The U.S. Military - Research Paper Example They were first introduced in military in World War I (1914-1918). Initially, the women did serve the military as nurses and also did a number of clerical jobs. After World War II, they were given permanent positions in US military under the Women Armed Services Integration Act, 1948. However, they were restricted to only 2% of the total US military. They were also not allowed higher positions of Generals in army. In 1978, female auxiliaries found in military branches were abolished by Congress and integrated forces were created for the first time. Women were also allowed to take part in many jobs other than those of healthcare and technicians. However, they were still restricted to be included in combat positions. The need of inclusion of women in combat positions was first recognized after the Gulf war in 1991. The women supported the armed forces on combat positions in the war. This brought the women to front lines. Their impressive and extraordinary services in the war gave groun d for the Defense Department of America to reconsider the ban imposed on the women to be included for combat positions. In 1993, the women were allowed to render their services on combat warships and aircrafts. Many military female officers welcomed the alterations. However, critics were of the view that these changes would damage the fighting ability of US forces. However, despite all criticism, more and more women were included for combat positions of US military. During Serbian conflict of 1999, women served as combat pilots in US Air force. Women were took part in Navy combat positions. However, during Iraq War, when two female Johnson and Lynch were captured, a debate regarding women services on combat positions started again. The role of women in US military for technical and healthcare jobs is acceptable for everyone. However, the deployment of women on combat positions is still a controversial issue. There are two view points, one that supports the deployment of women on com bat positions; and other that opposed such deployment. Both have their own arguments supporting their stand. DEPLOYMENT OF WOMEN FOR COMBAT POSITIONS IS ACCEPTABLE: SUPPORTERS’ VIEWS: The critics of women inclusion in combat points argue that the gender-integration of military will damage the morale of the women. This is the same argument which was made before when the US military was being integrated after the long segregation of whole military on racial basis. However, it is noticed later on that the racial integration of the army did not decrease the morale of the army. The same is the case with the inclusion of women for combat roles. The supporters argue that it is just a vague argument that the gender-desegregation of military will reduce the morale and efficiency of the military just as made previously about racial-desegregation of army. The supporters also criticize the point that women are physically weaker than men naturally. It is true but in non-physical attribute s, women are as much stronger as men are. They are psychologically stronger than men. However, some psychologists say that women are subjected to mental disorder same like men. Gender-integration may bring some positive effects on the overall performance of military. It increases the professional standards level of military and also brings cohesion which is by no means defective or less effective than found among men. So, there is no reason to believe that gender-desegregated units on combat positi

A Leader Essay Example for Free

A Leader Essay Leaders can be seen in a variety of ways such as a president, a soldier, an athlete. But does a lieutenant only lead his men into combat? Or does a president just send the military off to war in one command? Leadership has a far different meaning than one man giving orders. Being a leader, one must understand that you cannot carry every single thing upon your hands. Sometimes, even a leader can find themselves tied up in a knot and not realizing what they’ve done or are doing. Therefore, in a leadership position there must always contain a group so that way the leader will not rule over everything and actually be seen as an inspiring person; one who sacrifices themselves for others, and one who searches for the best outcome. Throughout my life of experience, I have come across â€Å"leaders and leadership†. There also have been many leaders way before my time came about. For example, somebody like John. F. Kennedy. This man was seen as very inspiring to the American people at the time. His speeches and commitment drove not only the people in the right path but the country as well. Currently, our country is being run by Barak Obama which is actually really good. He is a great example of a leader. He has helped our country in the past few years get a lot out of this huge dept we have and are actually still having. He’s also has helped us with this welfare and also is giving a bit more benefits for illegal immigrants. In addition, the outcome o f his work shall inspire the people of America. Currently my most favorable experience of leadership is actually taking place as we speak. I came across a book by the one and only great baseball player Josh Hamilton. It is called â€Å"Beyond Belief†. Josh Hamilton is a great example as a leader and is a man who inspires many ball players. Although he was drug tested and came out positive for cocaine and also suspended from the major leagues, he fought his way back to where he belonged in the majors. From a very young age he we always seen upon as the leader of the team. At the age of only six years old he obtained the skills to play with the older kids. Even then he was better than the older kids. He was always leading his teams in hits, average, and home runs. He carried this through high school. Although he was doing all these great things at once, being that type of leader is far different from being a leader for the team. He  would always care for his teammates as if they were brothers and always lightened up situati ons when they would be down a couple of runs or lost a game. He would sacrifice himself when needed and was always one for helping out his team before powering his skills onto the field. He was not a selfish person at all and never bragged about anything he did. He did it for the love of the game that he cherished so much. That’s what really defines a true leader. When one does not become selfish and truly believes in the good of things whether it is an athlete or a president. Therefore, the outcome will not only inspire teammates or the people of America, but maybe even inspire them self to do more and be greater. A leader always does what is best for the outcome. Overall for the country, or for their teammate. Within a leader, there is always something unique about them. There are reasons, facts, and details on why they seem so inspiring to many people and that is why they are chosen to be the leader or even simply be seen as a leader. Although a leader may have the drive to do something right it is not always the right or best thing. Groups will play an important role for the leader and back them up with opinions of their own. Furthermore, a leader must play along or they will not be seen as a one who sacrifices or inspires anything. Overall, the true greatness of a leader will only show when one is tested. It really can be at any moment. Josh Hamilton was tested for drugs and came out positive unfortunately. But the real test was whether he would be able to get back on his feet from this. Which in the end he did and fought his way all the way back to the top. Leaders do not vary simply off of how many people know them, how many votes, or how many home runs are hit. They’re leadership shows when they are in the toughest moments that seem they cannot get across but actually can. As long as there is a contained group within leadership, more often than not everything will be fine. Things will not turn into a dictatorship and one man will not lead his team to the world series. Therefore, the group within will help their leader realize what they are doing and they will in fact sacrifice, inspire, and search for the best outcome.

Role of the Mother in Winnicotts Theories: An Analysis

Role of the Mother in Winnicotts Theories: An Analysis How was the role of the mother developed in Winnicott’s theories and what is the implication for the development of the child? Evaluate this contribution in relation to thinking today. Donald Winnicott (1896-1971) an English paediatrician and psychoanalyst had a great influence in describing the object-relations theory, focusing on individual relationship with the mother and mother’s role during the transition of developmental stages in the life of child. Winnicott builds his concepts on Klein’s suggestion that the quality of infants’ environment plays a major role in their development. The object-relation theory suggests that an instinctual need is achieved by the agent called the â€Å"object† of instinct, who is usually the closest person in child’s life: the mother. This theory majorly focuses on the tendency to develop a self in significant relations between individuals as a basis through which the individual develops. The â€Å"Object† in this object relationship theory is anything/anyone but oneself (Reber, 1995) the sense of self of a child is defined by the kind of a relationship that the child experiences with the object through His or Her love and affection (Mother) the object refers to a person than oneself. There is a determining and critical impact of the quality of attachments with the object and it does not just affect the development of a child but also the future relationships that the child has with others in the future. This development in the child is justified through the trustworthiness of messages communicated by the care giver. Love is considered as the main motivating force in human behaviour which also includes development of relationships (Reber, 1995). The balance among love and affection for another and the interest in, and love for self, are formed through emotional bonds between self and another individual/object. Winnicott (1965) postulates the idea of primary maternal preoccupation explaining that after giving birth the mother becomes so involved and sensitive to infant’s needs that everything else falls apart in a secondary role. Taking the stages of separation individuation to a high research level Winnicott studies the role of mother (caregiver) in the social development of the child. He emphasizes on the importance of the mother’s ability to intuitively understand the needs of the infant at each and every point through the entire process of individuation. The child gives out certain messages and cues; the mother decodes these messages and through the same provides the framework of the progress of the child and his progress towards a proper level of functioning as an individual. â€Å"A good enough mother† defines a scenario where the mother is providing a facilitating environment where the growth of a child happens. He has purposely not used the term â€Å"perfect† in his statement since he believes that only a machine delivers perfection and not a human, therefore Winnicott believes that a perfect mother is not a good enough mother. According to Winnicot, a good enough mother can identify the needs of the infant and is able to provide a good adaptation to needs. A good enough mother is one who facilitates imaginative elaboration of physical experience for an infant and allows the baby to be totally dependent on her. In case of impingements, the infant can feel â€Å"going on being† with the help of a good enough mother, who aids the development of a child in the transitional phases of life. Winnicott has described three major stages of development. These are the stages of Subjective omnipotence, Objective realty and final stage of independence. The zones between these stages are a transitional experience for the child and exactly at this time, the presence of a mother is crucial. The quality of the support received by the child during the transitions stage determines the future of the child. It can decide the positive functioning or the lack of it. For Winnicott, the mother plays an important role in the transitional experience as well as the stages of development. Subjective Omnipotence When the child is newly born, the mother takes care of the Child’s needs with complete indulgence, where she responds to the cries of a child almost immediately. This state is referred to as the stage of maternal preoccupancy. At such times, the mother keeps aside her own needs and requirements to insure that she meets the requirements of her infant. She almost instantly responds when the child cries for milk. As a result to this, the infant thinks that he will immediately receive food at the very moment that he requires it. This illusion of Magical control is a very good example of subjective omnipotence (Rodman, 2003). Winnicott’s theory states that the Mother’s Breast is seen as the object of love during initial few weeks after birth. It is perceived so as the Mother’s breast meets the needs of the child’s hunger. During this stage, the object is perceived by the infant as a part of self. Hence, a subjective agenda is developed by the infant with an illusion that the Breast is a part of the infant’s oneself. In the infant’s initial development of identity, the illusion of Being-at-one is the first step in the infant’s development of an identity. Here the role of the good enough mother is highlighted in the developmental process of the child (Winnicott, 1971). Object realty (Not Me/Other than me) Over a period of time, the child needs its independence; hence, the mother distances itself according to the needs of the child. The child is provided an illusion by the mother that the breast will appear only in stances of a demand made. Post this stage, she helps the child progress through removal of omnipotence thinking and starts the process of introducing the child to the social world as a separate entity. (Winnicott, 1971) The time lapse between the child’s demands and its fulfilment is increased by the mother over time. Winnicott refers to this as the failure of the mother to meet the child’s needs on the spot. At this level the child experiences 2 states, one that of an introduction to independence and the other being frustration to having wait. The good enough mother is called so since she will only fail so much so that the child is left unharmed but is successful in entering the stage of transition. To cope with the failure of the mother and the Child’s self frustrated rate, the child will react in the following manner: He will recognize that the lapses in time are limited. Awareness will be created in his mind regarding the sense of progress. Thumb sucking, which is an auto erotic simulation, will be engaged in by the child in the stage of transition. He will experience various psychological factors like memories, dreams, relieving previous experiences which can also be referr ed to as integration of the past, present and future. Mental activities will be developed which will assist in deterring the child at times of frustration. At this stage the child will start having awareness of separation from mother. The mother makes the infant realize that there is a world outside of oneself which does not necessarily respond to a wish but the object of reality also teaches him that the outside world may respond negatively at times. The child stays safe in the hands of the mother all this while and the mother ensures that the child is not overprotected during this time. If the mother, due to any reason, fails to assist the child at times of transition from this stage to the stage of independence, as an adult, the child will be superficially adjusted and would fail to be passionate and unique. The child is gently ignored by the mother so that he can reach the stage of independence and experience freedom and learn all while providing the child with a safe and secure environment. The Stage of Independence At this stage, the â€Å"never absolute† stage of final independence is achieved. An important distinction between pure independence and never absolute independence is necessary in an individual’s life to both depend on others and be dependent on others. Others company or a social circle is desired by an individual and feels the need for belongingness. A healthy Psyche does not support isolation or is not supported by isolation but in spite of that none of us is over dependent on each other. Ones the child grows to be an individual and is separated from the mother, the holding environment acts as a safe junction through which the child can start the process of exploring the world all whilst having the knowledge that he is being provided the protection and support by the mother. For a child’s healthy development, this kind of a holding environment is extremely necessary. The child’s cues are recognized and worked upon by the mother whilst recognizing what he needs of the child are in respect with the holding environment and adapts to it accordingly. The child is provided with an environment of protection and safety through which the infant can develop from a child to adulthood. The process is supported by an optimal environment which makes sense through the fact that the good enough mother tunes in with the child’s development needs intuitively all whilst adopting both, the environment and her hand in the development of the child, the rate of which is determined by the child. The good enough mothers knows exactly regarding gradual adjustment of distance between herself and the child that this process cannot be sudden since the child would develop feeling of insecurity and no trust in others. The good enough mothers is in tune with her child’s escalation towards an independent self and moves at the child’s pace rather than her own. If everything works well according to the child’s needs, he develops an ego and the differentiation process is continued until the child can perceive that the mother is an independent being with clarity. Winnicott’s concept of true self and false self suggests that the child’s true self growth and expression is facilitated by the good mother and helps the child to be spontaneous and creative (Rodman, 2003). The true self behaves spontaneously, develops on integrity and believes that the true self is not created. The false self is similar to a mask which is worn by a person in a society in compliance with its norms like being quiet in setting that require silence around, being respectful to elders and so on. The not good enough mother wears this mask while responding to the child and in return the child adapts it as his false self. New relationships are developed by the child as its false self adapting to the demands of the environment with compliance. The role of a mother in the development of a child is of high importance to decide the future identity of the child and whether it grows into a secure or insecure adult. The mother plays major role in the transition and developmental stages which is also known as the objective role. In our days the mother’ role plays the same significant importance in the development of the child; however the society and culture have shaped this role raising a multitude of demands on women. Many mothers engage in the desire of having a fulfilled career becoming less involved in the developmental stages of their children. Many children are too early placed in nurseries and day care centres as mothers return to work. Like Winnicott suggests, an absent mother will determine children to either grow up confused, non-passionate and psychologically affected individual’s or according to the rule of self development, will grow up to be individuals who have succeeded through self development. Another issue could be represented by the option of not nursing the infants in a natural way, but feeding them with formula milk. This fact could lead to the loss of bondage, security and love between mother and child. On the other side, technology and the multitude of equipments facilitate mothers’ ability to crate safe and stimulating settings for their children. The quality of early parental styles and the development of the child in relationship with others is associated with maternal attachment and is entirely responsible for the development of a child into a secure adult. References: Changing Minds, 2013. The good Enough Mother [online] available at: http://changingminds.org/disciplines/psychoanalysis/concepts/good-enough_mother.htm [Accessed on: 21nd April 2014] Phenomenological Psychology, 2009. Winnicott the â€Å"false self† and contemporary media celebrity. [Online] Available at: http://phenomenologicalpsychology.com/2009/05/winnicott-the-false-self-and-contemporary-media-celebrity/ [Accessed on: 22nd April 2014] Reber, A. (1995). Dictionary of psychology, (2nd ed.). London: Penguin books. Rodman, F. R (2003) Winnicott Biography: life and work. Cambridge, Persus Books. Winnicott, D (1965) The International Psycho-Analytical Library, 64:1-276. London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis. Winnicott, D (1971) Playing and reality. England: Penguin books. Winchester.ac.uk, 2011. Donald Winnicott’s contribution to understand children and parenting. [Online] available at: http://www2.winchester.ac.uk/edstudies/courses/level%20one%20sem%20one/es1204w7Winnicott.htm [Accessed on: 22nd April 2014]

The Origins Of The Welfare State

The Origins Of The Welfare State The term modern Welfare State comes from the Beveridge report of 1941. The words represent that Government provides a minimum level of taxed welfare support for citizens in need. Beveridge and his five giants showed a greater need for an active role by Government in the welfare of its citizens through better housing, education, benefits for the unemployed and an accessible National Health Service. The foundations of this started mainly with the Liberal Reforms of 1906 1914 but this can even go back to the 1601 poor law. The 1601 poor law had control over the poor with very little interference from Government, as it was locally administered by the parish overseers (P. Spicker 2008) but still required the Church to assist. In 1834 the poor law was changed by Earl Grey (Spartacus Schoolnet); workhouses were introduced which meant no able bodied person would receive money or help from the poor law authorities (M. Bloy 2002). Other changes happened to this law; children would get schooling and be clothed and fed while in the workhouse. However, some people spoke out against the workhouses and called them prisons for the poor. Seebohm Rowntree did a study in 1901 and found a number of people living in poverty even though they were working, their wages were below the poverty line and they were struggling to survive (R. Ensor 1980). This led to the Liberal Reforms of 1906-1914, with the introduction of free school meals in 1906 and medical inspections in 1907 paid for by the State, but the treatment was largely unaffordable and relied on the charity of others. This was the start of new ideas in the Social Service State and Liberals made sweeping changes in their reforms; the elderly received an old age pension in 1908 and the sick would be paid whilst being unable to work through the National insurance Act of 1911. Unemployed people did not have to wander the country looking for work with the new labour exchanges set up in 1909, which meant employers could advertise jobs in one place, much like the Job Centres of today. Even with all the laws to help the poor, it still required a lot of help from other sectors (pluralism); the Church still played a major role in providing housing, food and clothing; charities still had to ask the rich to help. Even the poor had to help by sharing what little they had. Families united and pulled together to survive and this built a community spirit. The State didnt want the poor to rely on State help alone. This is the foundation of the modern Welfare State today. The NHS (established in 1948) still relies on outside resources, with charities like St Johns Ambulance helping provide front line assistance and organisations such as BUPA taking some of the pressure off the service from those who can pay. Housing for the poor is now mostly run through charitable associations in most areas and the Welfare State relies on voluntary organisations like Salvation Army and Barnardos to help with problems in society. This partnership with state, church, private business, voluntary organisations and charities has created a safety net for the poor in which children and adults have protection from poverty, abuse, hunger; giving them security and care in times of desperation. Task 2: Explain the contents and evaluate the purpose of the 1834 Poor Law. (540 words not including titles) The 1601 Poor Law had controlled the actions of the poor; making it very difficult for the poor to travel the country begging for food and shelter and helping stop associated anti-social behaviour. The poor could only get aid from charities and the local tax payers from their place of birth. This was costing more every year and the middle and upper classes that were paying through taxes, started to think they were paying for the lazy and those who would not help themselves to find work and better their lives. Charles Grey (2nd Earl Grey) was prime minister at this time and had been making sweeping reforms throughout Government; he set up a poor law commission to examine the poor law. The commission felt that to relieve poverty, the poor had to help themselves. As a result of this the 1834 poor law amendment act was passed. This new act made it so the poor were only able to receive any aid if they entered a poor house. All the parishes of the previous 1601 law now had to group together and set up poor law unions. This gave greater control over the poor and even on the cost to the Government and local tax payers; this was called indoor relief as opposed to outdoor relief. Outdoor relief tried to get the poor to look for work themselves and made those who were lazy and avoided work less eligible for help, with the hope that the fear of the poor house would be a deterrent and make them find work. These places were unforgiving; you would have to work hard to receive any state or charity help. The masters and matrons were harsh and there to be a visible deterrent; conditions hit the papers of half starved inmates even eating the rotting flesh from bones at the Andover workhouse (September 1845; The Times). Parliament had to do something and created a select committee in 1846 and with the result of its findin gs the poor law commission was abolished in 1847. The poor law act of 1834 was intended to be the solution to pauperism and believed the moral character of the working man would be his own saviour. This was shown not to be the case. The Government had to make improvements to this law after anti-poor law propaganda in its early years, to social unrest and riots in Bradford in 1837 where troops had to control the Chartism threat (the peoples charter). These revolts made way for changes to improved conditions for the working populations, such that the threat of the workhouse could be avoided through better sanitisation and clean water to counter sickness. Medical Officers were also introduced in 1871 to control public health issues. The state would provide schooling for 5-10 year olds from 1870 1880 to educate the poor to better themselves and Hospitals were slowly being made available for the most needy, to aid those in the population on low wages. The amendment of 1834 did go some way to improving the poors conditions, but it would not be until a number of years later that the Government chose not to control the poor by harsh measures but by working in partnership with them. Task 3: Outline some of the Liberal Reforms and evaluate their contribution to welfare policy (791 words not including titles) In Manchester 1899, out of 12,000 men offering to fight in the South African war, 8,000 were rejected on grounds such as malnutrition and illness. This led Charles Booth and Seebohm Rowntree to undertake studies of the state of poverty in Britain between 1901 and 1902. Rowntree found that the number of people in York found to be in primary poverty, was 15.45 percent of the wage earning class. Investigations by AL Rowley and AR Burnet found that working class areas throughout England showed much the same (R. Esnor England). This came from low paid jobs in society which made them have a very low standard of living. The Liberals took power in 1906 under Sir Henry Bannerman with a huge majority. They had not promised to bring poor law reforms, but were influenced by Rowntree and Booths reports which showed the laissez faire solution was not working in Britain. In 1906 the Liberals started to reform the poor law starting with the (1906) Education Act; this meant free school meals for the poorest families, making sure a child would receive one healthy meal a day. This was a great success as it encouraged parents to make sure their child went to school and keep them off the streets, but some local councils did not follow it up as it meant they would have to increase local taxes. Some councils did not want to move forward with new reforms for the poorest in society (National Archives). Liberals took this act further with the introduction of compulsory school medical inspections in 1907; these ensured children would be healthy but the downfall meant if the child needed treatment, they would still have to pay. The poorest of families would not have been able to afford this and would have had to go to charities for help. This changed in 1912 with the introduction of School Clinics; by this time the Government had introduced the new Childrens Act of 1909 which protected children from persecution / neglect from the family or their environment. The Liberals also helped the old with the introduction of a Pension Act in 1908 for those aged 70; they would receive 5 shillings a week and if married, 7 shillings 6d. This took away the affects of the workhouse for the elderly and protected them to a certain extent from working themselves to an early death, whilst taking away the pressure placed on poor families to look after an elderly family member. This would be funded by general taxation and had many critics. Many believed that the elderly had wasted money throughout their youth (National Archives) and now it would be down to the middle to wealthy classes to pay for their old age. To qualify people had to live in Britain for twenty years. Criminals and those felt to be idle did not receive any pension. They would still have to find work or enter the workhouse. This seemed fair as if you contributed to taxes you would be entitled to the pension; if not then you would be looking for the charity of others or the workhouse. Under Lloyd George the National Insurance Act of 1911 (Part 1 Health) would protect the sick if they became ill whilst working and help them and their family avoid ending up in the workhouse or in poverty. The worker would contribute 4d into the scheme while the employer would add another 3d, while Government added another 2d; this would give the worker 9d for only paying 4d. If the worker became ill, he would receive 10 shillings per week for up to 26 weeks and after that if he still was injured, 5 shillings disability pension. This scheme relied on the worker to protect himself from possible sickness / injury and built a structured work ethic for the working classes with a safety net if required; this is what Lloyd George hoped. The National Insurance Act of 1912 then came in to protect those who worked in jobs that lasted for short periods, like ship builders and construction workers. They paid into the scheme and could claim 7 shillings for 15 weeks whilst out of work until they either went back to their previous job or found another job. This was made easier with the set up of the Labour Exchanges in 1909, where employers could advertise positions of work in a designated place to save time for the jobseeker travelling from area to area. By 1910 eighty three exchanges had been set up. This system can still be seen today with the local Job Centres helping skilled and unskilled workers find employment to keep the costs of welfare to a minimum and ensure no-one had the option to be idle. Task 4: Describe and discuss Beveridges 5 giant evils and outline the key points of the Beveridge report and evaluate their significance. (1,274 words not including titles) William Henry Beveridge (1st Baron Beveridge 1879 1963) studied law in Oxford and became interested in the social service state while writing for the Morning Post Newspaper. Under a Liberal Government of 1906 1914 he became a prominent member of Lloyd Georges pensions and National Insurance scheme and was also involved in setting up labour exchanges throughout the country. After his book called Unemployment (1909), he altered expert opinion from one where low wages were seen as the cause of poverty, to one where people only being casually employed and not working all the time, meant they were unable to get themselves out of poverty. At the time of the Second World War, Beveridge was asked by the coalition Government to commission a report of how to rebuild after the war. Beveridge published his findings in 1942, but the words welfare state actually entered print in the early part of the war in 1941. In December 1942, the BBC broadcast to Nazi occupied Europe that Britain is grappling with its social problems through Beveridges proposals, even through war. This could have been seen as propaganda. As part of his report, Beveridge identified 5 giant evils that caused poverty. They were: Want. He identified that people lacked the security of an income, which in turn left them short of funds to live off. These were usually unemployed, sick, old or widowed and possibly unable to work through no fault of their own. To counter this problem, Beveridge created a means tested benefit system that would give the poorest people a safety net in times of crisis. This would be paid for by a compulsory flat rate National Insurance Scheme paid by the employee and employer. It would use the Rowntree calculations of basic needs to tackle poverty (Thane 1982). Beveridge also suggested that social insurance schemes like child benefit became universal and not means tested as this would help with the extra costs of having children preventing them becoming a burden to the family. Disease. Beveridge felt that better provision of non means tested health care by state funding should be comprehensive and available to everyone. This would improve the nations health and make people more able to get back into work and less dependent on the welfare system. Ignorance. This would be dealt with by a universal and compulsory state education system, particularly through provision of state funding with everyone able to have secondary education. This would improve the chances of the country, giving a better future for all. Squalor. Better housing and social environment improvements would provide subsistence and help the country become united for future prosperity, with the development of affordable homes as council houses for rent. This would also make jobs for the nation before and after the war through a building program. Idleness. Beveridge did not want what happened in the 1930s (mass unemployment) to be repeated again. This increased poverty and made some people become idle and brought back the problems of anti-social behaviour. He wanted more involvement from Government to create jobs and building programs to get the country to work, which would be self generating for prosperity. Beveridges report covered these 5 giant evils and aimed to address them. He proposed that the welfare state should focus on key points of; being comprehensive, universal for all, non means tested, compulsory for everyone, and funded through insurance type payments. The key points of his report guided changes in Government legislation in the following years, with huge significance for the country. Under Churchill, the Government moved on the Beveridge report with the undertaking of the Town and Country Planning Act (1943). The country needed to be rebuilt and this would go some way towards removing Squalor, but it wasnt until 1946 until most of Beveridges ideas of tackling this problem were undertaken by a Labour Government under Clement Attlee. Between 1946 and 1949, Housing Acts gave financial support to local authorities for rebuilding after the war. Between 1945 and 1951 1.25 million new council affordable homes were constructed. A Rent Control Act also came in in 1946 which would stop landlords increasing rents or providing shoddy housing; it also gave tenants the right to inform on unscrupulous landlords. Under this Act the councils could build new towns in the country and in 1949 Countryside Act, people had the right to roam, which in turn kept them fit and healthy. At much the same time, the Education Act (1944) was passed. This Act raised the school leaving age to 15 which later increased to 16. This could not be put into place as the Conservative Government had no way of funding it. When Labour came into power in 1947 the Act was passed and paid for by the state. This was a time of change and Labour started a nationalisation program to bring the country more in line with socialist ideas, being able to bring profits by other means than taxing heavily and creating a fairer society. In 1948 they introduced the Employment and Training Act which would tackle two of Beveridges problems, Idleness and Ignorance, making people go into work schemes, creating a skilled workforce for a better future. This was aimed at areas such as South Wales and the North East where there was high unemployment. This would make people feel part of the new ideas and make it hard for them to expect handouts. In 1945 the family allowance came into effect. This meant all those who had children would receive help from the state; this would be a universal benefit which would not be means tested which would make everyone feel it was comprehensive for all. In 1946 the National Insurance Act tackled the problems of the poor and Beveridges evil of Want. If someone became unemployed they would receive benefits to provide a minimum standard of living; this was also available to pregnant women and helped to fund old aged pensions. This also covered the sick and provided a comprehensive policy to solve the social problems from the cradle to the grave. To protect people from injuries at work, another act came into force, the Industrial Injuries Act (1946) which made employers take more care of the workers so they didnt claim compensation. In 1948 the National Assistance Act protected the poorest in society and this was the final nail that abolished the poor law. To fund this, everyone working and employers would pay into the scheme; this was compulsory and universal for all. The jewel in the crown for a more fair society in tackling Disease was the 1946 National Health Service. This provided free comprehensive health care, universal and regardless of means. This was put into place by Aneurin Bevan in 1948 under Labour. By 1949 187 million people had received prescriptions and another 8.5 million had free dental care which was very expensive for the country. By 1951 some services had to be paid for by its users to help fund the NHS but in general it still provided free health care for all while, in most cases, not being means tested. Beveridges ideas had now been introduced into society, with many changes since their introduction, but in general they accomplished their aims. They would provide a comprehensive package to all from cradle to grave. Benefits would be universal, regardless of means. They would be funded by the people for the people by insurance based payments. It would be compulsory for all to pay a flat rate payment and would provide subsistence to those living below the poverty line. Even those who were above this line would receive universal non-means tested benefits. References: Spicker, P (Unknown): UK Social Policy: Available. An Introduction to Social Policy; www.rgu.ac.uk/publicpolicy ; Last accessed 14/10/2010 Bloy, M (2002): Workhouses and the Poor Law: Available. The Victorian Web; www.victorianweb.org; Last accessed 14/10/2010 Driver, F (1993): Power and Pauperism: Available. Spartacus Schoolnet; www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Lpoor1834.htm ; Accessed 14/10/2010 Sutton Pocket Histories: Class Handout Social Welfare 2010 Ensor, R (1980): England 1870 1914: Book Club Associates London; chapter 14; p 515

A Letter To Shakespeare :: essays research papers

A Letter to Shakespeare January 23, 1997 William Shakespeare Stratford upon Avon Dear Mr. Shakespeare Just recently, I have read what it probably your most highly acclaimed works, Romeo and Juliet. I must give you credit for doing some great work with it, being that there are many people who enjoy it tremendously, however, I have a few problems with your story. I guess the main point that I am trying to stress, is that your story, yet good, is written to be understood by people from many centuries ago. Much of the script is written in old English, and it is very hard to understand and comprehend for people living today. I know that the setting for the story is several centuries ago, but I think that you could make a more revised version of the story for people today to read. One part that really stuck out to me was the very famous "balcony scene". Much of the language here could use some revision. For example, when Juliet says, "Romeo, Romeo, where for art thou Romeo?", I think it would be much better if she simply said something to the affect of "Romeo, where are you?" since that is practically all she is saying. And at the end of the balcony scene, instead of Juliet saying "Parting is such sweet sorrow," although that is very dramatic, she could just say something like, "I wish you didn't have to go so soon." Another part that I noticed was in the scene where Mercutio was insulting Tybalt, right before they fought in the streets of Verona. Mercutio had called Tybalt "prince of cats" since Tybalt was an ordinary name for house cats at that time. I think that it would be all right to keep this part, however you might want to think about changing Tybalt's name to something that is more common for cats today like Felix or even better, Whiskers, however that might not be a suitable name for a normal person. I think that in making these changes in your story, that it would make it much easier to read for people today, and I think that it might make school students who have to read it, like it even more. You might even want to think about changing the names of the characters to something more modern, or even something just completely stupid so it would appeal to people even more. For example, you could change Romeo and Juliet to Cocaine Chris and Kitty or Josh The Trashman and Maud. I think that would capture the readers' attention much better than just a couple of 16th century A Letter To Shakespeare :: essays research papers A Letter to Shakespeare January 23, 1997 William Shakespeare Stratford upon Avon Dear Mr. Shakespeare Just recently, I have read what it probably your most highly acclaimed works, Romeo and Juliet. I must give you credit for doing some great work with it, being that there are many people who enjoy it tremendously, however, I have a few problems with your story. I guess the main point that I am trying to stress, is that your story, yet good, is written to be understood by people from many centuries ago. Much of the script is written in old English, and it is very hard to understand and comprehend for people living today. I know that the setting for the story is several centuries ago, but I think that you could make a more revised version of the story for people today to read. One part that really stuck out to me was the very famous "balcony scene". Much of the language here could use some revision. For example, when Juliet says, "Romeo, Romeo, where for art thou Romeo?", I think it would be much better if she simply said something to the affect of "Romeo, where are you?" since that is practically all she is saying. And at the end of the balcony scene, instead of Juliet saying "Parting is such sweet sorrow," although that is very dramatic, she could just say something like, "I wish you didn't have to go so soon." Another part that I noticed was in the scene where Mercutio was insulting Tybalt, right before they fought in the streets of Verona. Mercutio had called Tybalt "prince of cats" since Tybalt was an ordinary name for house cats at that time. I think that it would be all right to keep this part, however you might want to think about changing Tybalt's name to something that is more common for cats today like Felix or even better, Whiskers, however that might not be a suitable name for a normal person. I think that in making these changes in your story, that it would make it much easier to read for people today, and I think that it might make school students who have to read it, like it even more. You might even want to think about changing the names of the characters to something more modern, or even something just completely stupid so it would appeal to people even more. For example, you could change Romeo and Juliet to Cocaine Chris and Kitty or Josh The Trashman and Maud. I think that would capture the readers' attention much better than just a couple of 16th century